روزی که فکر کردم زلزله امده...

روزی که فکر کردم زلزله امده...
 روز دومی بودکه وارد کابل شده بودم ساعت نزدیکهای 9 صبح بودصدای یک انجار مهیب همراه با لرزش زمین، برایم عجیب بود، وحشت نکردم فقط فکر کردم که چه اتفاقی ممکنه  افتاده باشد؟اول فکر کردم زلزله است و همزمان با زلزله تلویزیون هم یک فیلم جنگی پخش می کند،  اصلا یادم نبود که من کابل هستم و اینجا هرلحظه می تواند انفجار و انتحارباشد.
در یک حولی بزگ بودم که چند خانه وار با هم زندگی میکردند، من در طبقه پائین بودم، آنها در طبقه بالا، از اطاق بیرون شدم وحشتی که در چهره اطفال و زنان دیدم، هر کسی را که با تاریخ خونین این سرزمین بیگانه است به وحشت می انداخت، همه سراسیمه به بالکنی بالاخانه رفتند تا موقعیت تدریجی انفجار را حدس بزنند من هم انها را دنبال کردم. همه روی بالکنی جمع شده بودند و سعی داشتند به کسی از اطرافیان خود تلفن بزنند تا ببینند اعضای فامیل که در بیرون از خانه هستند در سلامت هستند یا نه؟ صدای زنگ تلفنهای اعضای خانه بیشتر از همه به آشفتگی فضا می افزود و برایم جالب بود.
مثلا ناگهان می شنیدم که منصور خواننده ایرانی می خواند مبارکه مبارکه ... یک گوشی تلفن را برمی داشت ، صدا قطع می شد و می گفت الو ! بله ما خوب هستیم و خانه هستیم ....
دوباره تلفن بعدی با صدای زنگ نوحه خوانی کویتی پور به صدا در می امد... کجاستی خانه هستین ؟ خیریت است ؟..
زنگ تلفن بعدی نغمه بود که می خواند....نغمه قطع می شد و زن جواب می داد، ما همگه خوب هستیم هنوز بیرون نرفتیم...
هم زمان شبکه های تلویزیون که یکی پس از دیگری تغییر میکرد به دنبال دریافت خبر انفجار، چند نفراز بالکونی به درون خانه امده بودند تااخبار را از تلویزیون دنبال کنند.
دوتا از زنان همچنان که دعا می خوانندند و آرزو می کردند که انفجار تلفات کمتری داشته باشد سبزی گندنه را پاک می کردند و  دیگری هم خمیر بولانی را راست می کرد، آنها یک لحظه هم از سبزی پاک کردن دست نکشیدند حتی برای رفتن به بالکنی وتماشای دود بلند شده از انفجار. مثل اینکه با خود فکر میکردند دنیا به هر سمت که روان است روان باشد ما برای چاشت بولانی داریم. ترس مرگ چطورمی تواند با لذت زندگی  بیامیزد ! چطور می شود وقتی از زنده بودن عزیزانت مطمئن نیستی به غذای چاشت فکر کنی؟ آیا این قدرت  زندگی است که می تواند دردهای بزرگ را با لذتهای کوچک کم رنگ کند.
من همانجا کنار بالکنی ودیوار مثل یک دیوار بی هیچ حرفی و واکنشی ایستادم، فقط صداها را با آیفونم ضبط کردم. من باید یک کاری می کردم و این تنها کاری بود که می شد کرد، بعد از نیم ساعت چرخیدم تا از پله ها بیرون شوم زنها گفتند نرو باش با ما نان بخور...

 تولدم ، روز نو، سال نو

روزی که زودتراز همیشه بیدار شدم تا شکر گذار نعمتهایی باشم که دارم. روزی که بعد از مدتها خواستم دعا کنم و دعا
کردم برای تکرار بهترین اتفاقات زندگی و برای صبور بودن هنگام  ما ندن های  پوچ  برایی سلامتی مادرم  برای خوشی همه .
برای قدردانی به داشتن بهترین فامیل که همیشه با گذشت بودند و مرا حمایت کردند. برای دوستان خوبی که سر راهم قرار گرفتند و به زندگی من شادی آوردند.
میخواهم از ان پس نگذارم که گم شوم یا کسی دیگری باشم میخواهم خودم باشم با همه دردها و زخمهایم. میخواهم از خودم یاد بگیرم وقتی که خودم را از دریچه دانش و تجربه دیگران میبینم . باید بیشتر بخوانم و عمیقتر نگاه کنم ... سالی که پیش رو دارم باید بسیار متفاوت باشد. بسیارکارهاست که تمام نشده . کتابهای نخوانده و فیلمها ی ندیده. دوستان فرموش شده. و زندگی که با کار عجین شده باید کمی منظم تر  پیش بروم .
فقط برای خودم زندگی نکنم .

روش های رایج در مستند سازی

Modes of Documentary  by  Bill Nichols

Bill Nichols in Introduction to Documentary notes six types of modes of documentary
Expository , Poetic, Observational , Participatory, Performative , Reflexive
Nichols 2001 looked at history of documentary and identified 6 distinct modes
From Expository to Performative (see below). In a linear progression. With distinct syles. Nichol’s modes is not the only theory of documentary and is not definitive, see Bruzzi below and also look at Grierson’s theories as well as Bazin’s views on realism.
Criticism of Nichols
Stella Bruzzi 2000 Criticsed Nichols for suggesting that Doc. makers have aimed for the 'perfect representation of the real’ and would fail in this impossible aim, thus undermining the documentary form.
Quotes She said that ‘all types of documentary have existed at different times’
And have often, mixed styles. ‘What is the point of worrying about authenticity’
She sees documentary as contributing to meaning about real world events.

THE EXPOSITORY MODE (voice of god)
This mode is what we most identify with the documentary - it "emphasizes verbal commentary and argumentative logic" often using a narrator.
Assumes a logical argument and a "right" and "proper" answer using direct address
+ offering preferred meaning.
Most associated with Television News programming.
Key Examples of Expository tradition in documentary include: Work of John Grierson Many nature Documentaries

THE POETIC MODE – subjective, artistic expression
The poetic mode of documentary moves away from the "objective" reality of a given situation or
people to grasp at an inner "truth" that can only be grasped by poetical manipulation Codes emphasizes visual associations, tonal or rhythmic qualities, descriptive passages, and
formal organization favours mood, tone and texture.
Key Examples of Poetic tradition in documentary include:
Robert Flaherty's Man of Aran (1934) - dramatic framing of material presents mythic image of man in harmony with nature
Leni Riefenstahl's Olympia (1938) presents a glorified view of (Aryan) athletes during the 1936 Olympic Games - celebrating power and beauty of the (Aryan) human form + Triumph of the Will (1935) + Baraka (1981) also Powaqqatsi (2003)

THE OBSERVATIONAL MODE – window on the world
Observational (objective) mode is best exemplified by the Cinema Verite or Direct Cinema movement which emerged in the late 1950s/early 1960s - it attempted to capture (as accurately as possibly) objective reality with filmmaker as neutral observer. See Fly on the Wall.
Codes/conventions
The filmmaker remains hidden behind the camera, ignored by the surrounding environment he/she neither changes nor influences the actions/events being captured.
Since nothing is staged for the camera, the camera rushes about to keep up with the action resulting in rough, shaky, often amateur-looking footage.
Key Examples of the Cinema Verite/Direct cinema Movement: .
Frederick Wiseman, Hospital (1970) – fly on the wall, American hospital
Richard Pennebacker's Don't Look Back (1967) - records Bob Dylan's 1965 tour of Britain Also Soho Stories (1996), Geri (1999)


THE PARTICIPATORY MODE
Unlike the observational mode, the participatory mode welcomes direct engagement between
filmmaker and subject(s) - the filmmaker becomes part of the events being recorded The filmmakers impact on the events being recorded is acknowledged, indeed, it is often
celebrated.
Key Examples of the Participatory Mode include:
The films of Michael Moore - here the filmmaker directly engages with the material being
address, he becomes a character in the documentary - an essential part of the subject Nick Broomfield's work, such as Kurt and Courtney (1998)
Living with Michael Jackson (2004) Basher

THE REFLEXIVE MODE – awareness of the process
The Reflexive Mode acknowledges the constructed nature of documentary and flaunts it - conveying to people that this is not necessarily "truth" but a reconstruction of it - "a" truth, not "the" truth
Codes/conventions
The artifice of the documentary is exposed - the audience are made aware of the editing, sound recording, etc.
Key Examples of the Reflexive Mode include:
Dziga Vertov's Man with a Movie Camera (1929) - documents the mechanization of Soviet life
in late twenties - the mechanical camera and cameraman become part of the subject
The art of making pictures is part of this "new" mechanical work and it to is part of the film - we literally at points in the film see the film being constructed

THE PERFORMATIVE MODE – filmmaker as participant
This mode of documentary emphasizes the subjective nature of the documentarian as well as acknowledging the subjective reading of the audience - notions of objectivity are replaced by "evocation and affect"
Codes /conventions
This mode emphasizes the emotional and social impact on the audience
Key Examples of the Performative Mode include: Supersize me Morgan Spurlock 2004
Arguably, films by Michael Moore 

نگاهی به سینمای مستند از برادران لومیر تا رابرت فالاهرتي ، جان گريرسن، ژيگاورتوف و ژان روش

فیلم مستند،  فيلمي است که با واقعيات سر و کار دارد و نه با قصه ها و ماجراهاي تخيلي، و مي کوشد واقعيت را چنان که هست به نمايش بگذارد و تا حد ممکن از دستکاري در آن پرهيز کند.

 به همين خاطر، اين فيلم ها با آدم ها، مکان ها، رويدادها و فعاليت هاي واقعي سر و کار دارند. ارائه واقعيت در هر حال متضمن دستکاري، انتخاب، حذف و شکل دادن است، به همين خاطر فيلم هاي مستند را بايد بر اساس ميزان کنترلي که فيلم ساز بر واقعيتي که ضبط مي کند اعمال مي دارد، ارزيابي کرد. اما نکته اي که درباره تمام فيلم هاي مستند صادق است، اين است که آن ها مي کوشند حسي از واقعي بودن آن چه را مي بينيم و مي شنويم به ما القا کنند. واژه مستند را اول بار جان گريرسن، ( مستند ساز و منتقد سينما) در نقد فيلم موانا(1926- Moana) ساخته رابرت فالاهرتي به کار برد. گريرسن بعدها اين واژه را معادل«برخورد خلاقه با واقعيت» گرفت و سرانجام در سال 1948، «اتحاديه جهاني سينماي مستند» اين واژه را تصويب و آن را چنين تعريف کرد: «ضبط سينمايي هر جنبه اي از واقعيت که با فيلم برداري واقعي و بدون دستکاري، يا با بازسازي وفادارانه و معقول رويدادها، روي فيلم، به هدف گسترش بخشيدن به دانش و درک مردم و ارائه مسائل و راه حل هاي آنان به عيني ترين و واقعي ترين صورت ممکن انجام شده باشد».  چون مستند به گستره وسيعي از فيلم ها قابل اطلاق است، منتقدان و فيلم سازان عبارات هم ارز ديگري نيز به کار مي برند، براي مثال مستندهاي تبليغاتي، مستندهاي آموزشي، مستندهاي داستاني، مستندهاي اجتماعي، مستندهاي تاريخي، 

.مستندهاي سياسي و غیره

اساسا فيلم هاي اوليه تاريخ سينما را بايد فيلم هاي مستند ناميد. برادران لومير در شروع کارشان يک سري فيلم ساختند که همگي را از زندگي روزمره مردم تهيه کرده بودند براي مثال ورود قطار به ايستگاه( 1895)(يا خروج کارگردان از کارخانه(1895). در اين ميان در آمريکا هم، اديسون و همکارانش فيلم هايي از اتفاقاتي که در محل کارشان مي گذشت، مي گرفتند. هم چنين در کشورهاي ديگر نيز، به محض آن که صاحب اين صنعت مي شدند، کارشان را با ساخت اين گونه فيلم ها آغاز مي کردند. برادران لومير اين فيلم ها را وقايع اتفاقيه( مي ناميدند. اما سينماي مستند به معنا و مفهوم امروزي آن با فيلم نانوک شمالي(1922- Nanook of the North) ساخته رابرت فلاهرتي آغاز شد. نانوک شمالي به نوعي يک مستند داستاني بود. رابرت فلاهرتي، يک معدن شناس بود که در منطقه قطب شمال کانادا، فعاليت مي کرد. زندگي سخت اسکيموهاي ساکن در آن محل توجه او را جلب کرد. او در سال 1920 به آن محل رفت تا در ميان يک خانواده اسکيمو زندگي کند و از زندگي روزانه اين مردم فيلم بگيرد. او پس از 16 ماه با فيلم هاي گرفته شده به آمريکا بازگشت، فيلم ها را تدوين کرد و فيلمي مستند به نام نانوک شمالي به مدت 75 دقيقه فراهم کرد. اين فيلم هم مورد توجه منتقدان و هم مورد توجه تماشاگران قرار گرفت. يکي از دلايل موفقيت نانوک شمالي در آن زمان بداعت و غرابت آن بود، زيرا اين فيلم نخستين آشنايي مردم معمولي با اسکيموها و زندگي آن ها بود. از طرف ديگر شيوه فيلم برداري و تدوين فيلم توسط فلاهرتي، در اين فيلم منحصر به فرد و جذاب بود. نانوک شمالي به نوعي راه را براي اکران فيلم هاي مستند ديگري که در مورد زندگي مردم مختلف ساخته شده بودند باز کرد. موفقيت 

فيلم نانوک شمالي و هزينه اندک توليد آن صنعت سينماي آمريکا را بر آن داشت که به فيلم مستند بيشتر توجه کند

 سرانجام سيستم استوديويي هاليوود با دخالت هايش و تاکيد بيش از حد بر روي ساخت مستندهاي تجاري

فلاهرتي  را نااميد کرد و او نيز به انگلستان مهاجرت کرد. گر چه فيلم هاي فلاهرتي از پيش برنامه ريزي شده و حتي گاه تمرين شده بودند، اما دستاوردهاي درخشاني به حساب مي آمدند که شيوه هاي مختلف زندگي را نشان مي دادند و در آن ها، کار هنرمندانه و خلاقانه اي در زمينه انتخاب فضا، کار با دوربين و ندوين به چشم مي خورد

جنبش مهم ديگر در عرصه مستند سازي در دهه 20 ميلادي و در شوروي جريان داشت و سردمدار آن ژيگاورتوف(Dziga Vertov) بود. ژيگاورتوف در 1918، يعني در اوج درگيري هاي داخلي شوروي بعد از فروپاشي حکومت تزاري به عنوان تدوين گر حلقه هاي خبري، فعاليت مي کرد. ورتوف در آغاز به همين راضي بود که فيلم ها را صرفا به صورت کاربردي و مفيد سر هم کند، اما رفته رفته دست به تجربه هايي زد تا از طريق تدوين، بر شدت بيان فيلم ها بيفزايد. از آن جا که ورتوف از طرفداران نظام جديد بود، تجربه هايش از جانب کميته سينمايي حکومت جديد، حمايت مي شد، به همين خاطر ورتوف گروه کوچکي از مستندسازان جوان و علاقه مند را جمع کرد و نام گروه خود را کينوکي به معناي سينما – چشم، گذاشت 

در بين آثار ورتوف، کامل ترين و مهم ترين فيلم او مرد دوربين به دست میباشد  

 اين فيلم تمام جنبه هاي تدوين و کار با دوربين را که تا آن زمان در سينماي صامت شناخته شده بود به کار گرفته است، تا زندگي در جريان طبيعي خود را در يک روز عادي در مسکو، از طلوع آفتاب تا غروب به تصوير بکشد

بعد از فلاهرتي و ورتوف، سرشناس ترين نام در تاريخ سينماي مستند، جان گريرسون است.

 گريرسون در انگلستان فعاليت مي کرد. سينماي انگلستان از همان ابتداي ظهور سينما در اين کشور، توجه خاصي به فيلم هاي مستند داشت. گريرسون بسيار بر روي فيلم هاي مستند و مونتاژي شوروي(به ويژه آثاز ورتوف) کار کرد. او تعدادي از جوانان مشتاق را دور هم جمع کرد، از جمله، رابرت فلاهرتي را که به انگلستان مهاجرت کرده بود، دعوت به همکاري کرد. آن ها نهضتي به راه انداختند که آن را مستند سازي مسئولانه( Socially Commited) مي ناميدند. گريرسون و گروهش طي ده سال در حدود سيصد فيلم عرضه کردند. فيلم هاي اين گروه، زندگي مردم انگلستان را به تصوير مي کشيد و مسائل و مشکلات اجتماعي را مطرح مي کرد. در اين فيلم ها، تکنيک هاي چشمگيري به کار رفته است، اما در اين فيلم ها بيش از مسائل هنري و زيبايي شناختي، جنبه آموزشي و خبري آن ها اهميت دارد. آن ها هم چنين در دوران جنگ، مستندهاي خوب و در خور توجهي ساختند. از جمله فيلم هاي مستند مهم و قابل توجه اين گروه مي توان به رانده شدگان(1929- Driifters) ساخته جان گريرسون، سرچشمه(1931- Upstream) ساخته آرتور آلتن(Arthur Elton)، بريتانياي صنعتي( 1933- Industrial Britain) ساخته فلاهرتي، آواز سيلان(1934- Song Of Ceylon) ساخته بازيل رايت(Basil Wright) و پست شبانه(1936- Night Mail) ساخته بازيل رايت و هري وات(Harry اشاره کرد

 متاسفانه اين گروه پر شور در دهه چهل از هم پاشيد

اما مهمترین  توسعه اي که از آن زمان به بعد در سينماي مستند رخ داده، شاید  مطرح شدن سينما – وريته در فرانسه و سينماي بي واسطه(Direct Cinema) در آمريکا، هر دو در دهه 1960 بوده است. هر دوي اين جنبش ها، تحت تاثير فيلم ها و آثار مستند تلوزيوني قرار داشتند و در شکل گيري آن ها، ورود دوربين ها و ضبط صوت هاي سبک، عدسي زوم و فيلم هاي حساسي که در نور طبيعي هم قابل استفاده هستند، نقش مهمي داشته است. سينما – وريته عبارتي است فرانسوي معادل سينما – حقيقت و به يک رشته فيلم هاي مستندي اطلاق مي شود که به دوربيني سبک و قابل حمل و مضاميني خود انگيخته اتکا دارند که از پيش طرح ريزي نشده باشند. سينما – وريته عبارتي است که ژان روش (JeanRouch) براي توصيف فيلم وقايع نگاري يک تابستان(1961) که با همکاري ادگار مورن(Edgar Morin) ساخته بود و آن را از اولين فيلم هاي سينما – وريته مي دانند، به کار برده است. اصول تئوريک و علمي سينما وريته تا حد زيادي به آثار ژيگاورتوف و تا حد کمتري به فيلم هاي رابرت فلاهرتي متکي است. يک تکنيک بارز در سينما – وريته، انجام گفتگوهاي بي مقدمه و آني براي بررسي مساله مورد نظر است

How to write a film treatment

Film Treatments

Generally speaking, a film's treatment is similar to that of an overview or synopsis of the film idea. It usually ranges from 8 to 15 pages and includes all the important conceptual elements, structured in 3-5 acts, each with a beginning, middle and end. When you submit your script, your treatment will often be the first document to be glanced over. If the main concept is enjoyable and your treatment is well written maybe, just maybe, your script will make it into the hands of the "professional script reader". This is an important element of screenwriting which you should know about. When you submit your script to producers, you will not be submitting your scripts to the major decision makers first. Your script will first have to pass through a filter that these large production companies have put in place.

If your treatment is well composed, interesting and has commercial potential, the professional reader may actually take a look through your script. If your script manages to capture their interest, they might then take a full read though it. After this point, if they still feel strongly towards it, they will forward your script to their manager or a producer who will then take another read through the script.

How hard is it to get your script past the professional reader? Well, it's really not that hard. While professional readers say they usually reject 95% of the scripts that come across their desks, this doesn't provide us with any insight into how much pure unprofessional junk they read.

Imagine you asked 10 of your friends to write you a short story which would be about 15 pages long. Most of these people would have limited or little writing experience. They may love the experience of writing and they may even love their little 15 page story. However, just because they love their work it doesn't mean that the general audience will. Imagine how many of your friends' short stories you would reject right away. Probably about 60%. If you were looking at publishing only 1 of them, you would probably find that some lacked proper structure, others were printed in fonts that were too small or too hard to read, while others had stories which were simply not believable or too boring and personal.

Out of the 40% that remain, even if the stories are good, you will be able to knock off many more because they do not have enough commercial potential, perhaps because they are not conflict-ridden enough or perhaps have too much violence or sexual content.

A film treatment states how the audience will experience the film. It's important to write treatments in an active voice and avoid the use of hyperbole (such as "this unique film will explore" etc). When writing treatments you want your audience to be able to visualize your film. You will want to write in present tense and provide an overview of the characters, locations and details of the film. You can write your treatment creatively. The purpose of a treatment is to allow your audience to smell, taste and experience your environment. Reading a treatment (second only to reading a full script) is the closest written equivalent to the look of your film.

That being said, it's important to leave out technical information. In a script you may include camera information if necessary (movement etc), but in a treatment you'll want to keep it limited to non-technical information.

Similarly, you won't want your treatment to have an editorial tone.

Again, it's important to stress that you need to avoid editorial writing when writing treatments and instead speak in an active and present voice. Similarly, you should avoid using words and phrases like

"Next we see" - Don't start sentences with "we see". Tell the audience what they see without introducing your sentence with "we see".

Try to avoid passive words such as: Should, will, might and maybe.

Passive words evoke less emotion and take the audience out of the story. Feel free to use dialogue snippets, descriptions of the environment and characters. Essentially use any non-technical element that helps you paint as colourful of a picture as possible.

A treatment helps investors visualize your idea in a personal manner. Treatments don't have a "business feel" to them. They sound dramatic, personal and honest.

Thinking about films

Introduction

Films can be more than just entertainments and diversions. In today's media-saturated culture films carry a power and influence that is easy to underestimate. Films stimulate discussion, spark debate, and frequently challenge our perception of the lives of others.

In this guide we explore how films can be used in relation to issues of citizenship. The criteria for the selection of the films in this volume are as follows:

• The films
  • Are accessible both in terms of availability and in their narratives
  • Express issues relating to citizenship in vivid and cinematic ways
  • Reflect different cinematic traditions and approaches.

• We also considered:
  • The quality of the film in terms of its ability to challenge and reveal some depth and complexity in its assessment of the situation being dramatised
  • The film's cinematic strength – its effective and creative use of editing, camera placement, music, performance
  • The type of film it is in terms of genre – Antz, for example, is a computer-animated film which is exemplary in its use of the format and which succeeds in combining the fantasy of its setting and scenario with some comment about the individual and society

We have selected mainstream and non-mainstream films, mainly from the United States and the United Kingdom, with one from France. The earliest film in the selection, Twelve Angry Men, was made in 1956, and the most recent film was made in 2002. Hopefully, students' preconceptions about what makes a film enjoyable and worth watching will be challenged by this selection.

Film is an established art form, over a century old. It has become a dominant means of communication and expression worldwide through theatrical releases, home video, DVD and now the internet.

Pictures can transcend the barriers of written and spoken language with powerful effects. As with any art form, film is able to explore a vast range of subjects ranging across the personal, the social, the cultural, the historical and the factual. Like other art forms, film takes many different forms to express its ideas. Most familiar to us is the live action narrative feature film made so popular by Hollywood and now the dominant storytelling form in the world. However, other key forms are the short film, the animated film, documentary and reportage.

This guide focuses on dramatic narratives in live action feature films, documentaries and animations. Our hope is that in demonstrating the educational value of these films, we will prompt further investigation beyond the scope of this guide. In all examples, the films chosen use cinematic devices creatively and intelligently, so that the ways the issues and drama are presented are as important as what is presented. In fact, what you are shown is created by how it is shown. Form and content are essentially linked. This is why we would argue that media education is central to citizenship education.

What makes a film?

Shooting Hoop Dreams

We have selected films that exemplify interesting and challenging treatments of citizenship-related issues as well as compelling use of filmmaking devices and techniques, combined to form a style, to convey their narratives and themes.

The term 'style' refers to the way in which any medium (films, music, literature) uses specific technical elements. In film, with its rich fusion of many of the art and craft forms that preceded its development, style is a term that covers a wealth of individual elements, from the visual and performing arts, music, technology and literature, comprising the motion picture. As such, when discussing how a film creates its emotional and intellectual effects you can break the material into various key features of style:

• Camera movement
• Camera placement
• The use of music
• Sound effects
• Performances
• Décor
• Lighting

In this guide we will not be able to delve into these elements, but we offer an outline of the basic concepts central to film analysis. Like literature, film has a grammar - a range of acknowledged conventions which underlie how the film is constructed - and can call upon considerations of genre, narrative, character, plot and setting.

Film language

The basic elements of film language are camera, sound and editing. These elements are combined in the construction of a film.

Camera

This includes camera shots and angles, as well as what is in the camera frame:

Camera shots include:

Wide shot: often the first shot of a sequence (establishing shot), giving the viewer a clear sense of location and time of day. Wide shots of people will usually frame them in their entirety

Medium or mid-shot: usually frames people from the waist up; emphasises more details of people and objects

Close-up: used for particularly important moments or reactions. Close-ups of people's face are usually framed from the neck up, emphasising the face.

Camera angles include:

High angle: a shot taken from above the subject

Low angle: a shot looking up at the subject

This student handout (PDF) provides a useful summary of camera shots.

In addition, when the term mise en scène is used to refer to everything in a shot – its overall impact: lighting, camera placement, the positioning of actors, what we are shown (or not shown).

Sound

In filmmaking, sound is manipulated independently of the image in film. It can be used representationally (we see a train and hear its engines), impressionistically (we see a rural landscape and hear bird song) and even psychologically (we see a terrified face and hear a high pitched train whistle). Sound can fundamentally change the way we interpret the meaning of a shot or a sequence of images and can be used to emphasise an element of action within the frame. Or it can challenge and upset an expectation in order to achieve a dramatic and emotional effect. Silence – the absence of sound – can also be extremely effective.

A distinction in film analysis is often made between diegetic and non-diegetic sound. Diegetic sound is within the world of the film's story, for example, a song being heard from a radio in the room. Non-diegetic sound exists beyond the world of the story, such as a voice over. In practice, the distinction between diegetic and non-diegetic sound is rarely clear-cut however, these definitions are a useful starting point for discussing the different uses of film sound.

Sound effects

A sound which accompanies a corresponding image, such as footsteps, is not necessarily from the same source that we see on screen – it can be created artificially. This kind of sound effect is known as a Foley effect. Foley effects are usually used to enhance believability, making the sound match what is on the screen.

Music

In the early days of cinema, before the use of synch sound, live music always accompanied 'silent' film screenings and, in early sound films, the music was played on set while the film was being shot. This was a natural extension of the way musical accompaniment was used in theatre and vaudeville and is just one legacy of the theatrical tradition which so informed the development of early narrative cinema. With the introduction of synch sound to filmmaking, music became more imaginatively integrated into film.

Film music includes source music (such as classical pieces or popular music) and music specially composed for the film. It can be used as another voice in a film, influencing our response to images. It can enhance the meaning or dramatic effect of an image, or challenge it. It can also be used to link apparently unconnected scenes and situations together. While it is not 'realistic' for music to accompany action, it is an accepted convention of classical-styled narrative cinema, and tends to enhance our involvement in and acceptance of the world of the film. Music operates, like pictures, beyond the confines of language and dialect and so helps universalise film.

Music and film are a strong marriage as they are both based around time and rhythm. In realist films, such as Twelve Angry Men and Hush-a-Bye Baby, music is used sparingly to enhance the moments where it is used in the drama, whether it is an upbeat or downbeat moment. In other films, such as Thelma and Louise, music is used more extensively throughout and plays an integral part in the overall pace and structure of the film. Exploring the way sound, especially music, and image work together, can help students peel away some of the layers of meaning within a film and identify how music and sound effects influence or manipulate audience response.

Editing

Editing is the way the material shot for a film is constructed and organised. While film incorporates many aesthetic devices from other arts, editing plays a particularly important role in filmmaking. Editing allows a series of image sequences to be pieced together across a period of screen time to construct or shape the film. Editing builds the narrative logic of a film, organising the events into blocks based around cause and effect, and shapes the emotional and psychological impact of a given sequence. It creates impressions of events and characters, and sets up tensions, contradictions and unexpected or unusual juxtapositions. As in all art forms, disrupting or breaking the 'rules' is often done for effect.

Editing is the basis of the 'continuity system' in filmmaking. It disguises the artifice of the format. A good example of this is the '180 degree rule', which means that when two characters are speaking to each other the camera cuts from one face to the other without crossing an invisible line of vision. The camera shots and the way they are edited makes it look as if they are talking to each other even if they are not both on the screen at the same time. We do not notice this when we watch the film, because we accept the convention.

Editing can also be used to build suspense and pace, and a key technique here is that of inter-cutting where we follow two separate events happening, more or less, simultaneously. The shorter a shot is on screen for the faster the action appears. Fast edits are frequently used to build a sense of kinetic action and speed, as you can see in any chase scene. The pace of a sequence is slowed down by fewer cuts and longer shots, the technique typically used in scenes to establish characters.

Realism and representation

Most films aspire to a kind of transparency so that the viewer feels they are being given a window on a world that has been captured on film. Filmmakers usually want you to forget that everything in the film has been set up. They want the viewer to submit to the images as being completely believable. Films re-present the world to us, and the visual power of films is particularly effective in making us believe in the world they represent. Furthermore, a film – like a book – can draw you into its world and make you believe it without being 'realistic'.

Studying how films represent the world to us is a useful way of exploring how films are constructed, and how they manipulate or influence our emotions and perceptions of the world. This does not mean that any representations within films should be unequivocally classified as negative. There is little evidence to suggest that even young people take at face value the way films present the world to us – whether in terms of representations of violence, race, gender, sexuality, etc. However, by providing the tools to analyse films, media education can help students develop a critical understanding of the process of representation which can help to inform and substantiate their arguments. In their teaching guide, Representation, Realism and Fantasy (BFI 2003), Roy Stafford and Jackie Newman suggest the following questions can be asked of any film text:

• How close to reality is the world of the film meant to be? This is an aesthetic question about 'realism' and the way the world is re-presented to us.
• How are familiar 'types' used in the film as a form of shorthand to represent people? What kinds of ideas of what is 'typical' does the film entertain? Who or what is representative?
• Who is in control of the representations in the film – whose values and ideas are expressed in the film? (The writer or director may have particular views on the issues in the film. The producers may be concerned to reflect mainstream opinion.)
• What likelihood is there that different audiences will make different readings?
• To what extent are the representations in the film related to changes in the 'real world' context of the film's production?

Whether a film is a documentary, a feature film, live action or animation, these questions will help students probe into the film's content, meanings and construction, and explore and analyse their own responses and reactions to the film.

Other aspects of film analysis

The notes on the Recommended films provide key information about each film, using the following labels, terms and concepts.

The director

Since the earliest period of cinema history, the director has had the opportunity to effectively author the film. While filmmaking is a collaborative form, depending on many specialists in art, craft and technology, their contributions will typically be channelled through the director. In effect the director decides on what will and will not best serve the overall meaning and quality of the film. One of a director's tasks is to balance out the contributions of the various departments. He or she is responsible for controlling themise en scene of a film and unifying all of the elements of camera, sound, editing and performance, establishing the style and the tone of the film. There is some debate among film theorists as to how far the director is really responsible for the 'authorship' of the film (in a similar way that a writer is seen as author of a novel), and the idea of authorship is usually applied to directors with a distinctive style and approach to filmmaking.

The cast

Many of the films in this selection feature relatively unknown and, in some instances, non-professional, actors. Some of the films feature famous actors or stars. One of the key issues when considering the cast of a film is the impact on the audience of a star in one of the roles – what do they bring to a role in terms of a range of associations and expectations, which the role may reinforce or challenge? Film stars function in part as a commodity and film producers recognise the value of the star in attracting audiences. Frequently, stars will conform to the identities they have established on-screen but sometimes they will feature in films that offer them opportunities to contradict their established screen personas. A star's presence in a film gives it wider appeal, even if audiences might not be attracted to its subject matter.

Screenplay

The screenplay includes the dialogue and the action of the film, which are key to establishing and structuring the narrative of a film. The final film may or may not closely match the original screenplay.

Form

A film may be live action or animation, a feature film or a short, a documentary or a fiction film.

Language

Most films in this guide are in English, however when they are in another language they include subtitles. Learning to read subtitles fluently will enable students to enjoy and appreciate a far wider range of films.

Running time

This information is given to help you decide when and how to show the film.

Classification

We have noted the certificate rating for each film. Our selection includes films with U, PG, 12 and 15 certificates. This provides only a guide to suitability. You should always watch the film yourself, and decide whether it is suitable for your purposes. A 15 certificate does not necessarily preclude you from using at least part of the film with younger students.

Distributor

This refers to the distribution company who has released the video. To some extent it reflects to what extent the film is mainstream or not mainstream.

Genre

In the National Literacy Strategy for England, genre is 'different types of writing, each with its own specific characteristics which relate to origin (legend/folktale) or reader interest area - the types of books individuals particularly choose to read: adventure, romance, science fiction.' (NLS, 1998, p80)

As in literature, film narratives exist across a range of genres. The films we have included in this guide include science fiction, fantasy, western and drama, but many of the films, in their particular ways, combine various generic elements to create fresh and exciting stories, such as inThelma and Louise.

We use the idea of genre as label to help us define or categorise a film. Knowing the genre helps the audience determine the type of film they are going to watch and the kinds of rules that the film will most likely follow in terms of style and tone, and the kinds of characters, situations and resolutions the story will contain.

Setting

This term describes location and period of a given film's story. In some cases this will in itself prompt discussion. The geographical and historical setting of a film is reflected in mise en scène particularly, but also in other aspects of the film such as characterisation.

Main characters

The main characters help express and develop the themes of the film. Characters are individuals with relationships to other people and situations in the world of the film's story.

Narrative focus

This refers to the character who the film wants the audience to follow most clearly. This character channels the key elements of the drama and themes through their situation and dilemma.

In addition the notes in on the films include:

Synopsis

A brief outline that suggests the basic course of action and the tone of the film.

Background

A summary of information behind the making of the film – for example, why it was made, what other films the director has made, the stars, etc.

Commentary

This provides some analysis of the film and what makes it worth studying as a film, including what themes it covers. A film's theme(s) is not simply the preserve of the filmmaker. Audiences might extrapolate themes from the film, based on their experiences and reactions as they view it, which the filmmaker had not necessarily intended. Furthermore, film may mean different things to different people at different times.